This document is an outline of arguments against the planned destruction of many thousands of tall trees in East Bay forests, ostensibly to reduce fire risk. Cutting the targeted tree species will take away much of the fog drip, shade cover, and wind breaks that retain moisture and reduce fire risk. Preventing eucalyptus stumps from resprouting requires ongoing herbicide applications in natrual areas. Areas that have been cleared of tall trees tend to become filled with fast-spreading ground fuels such as French broom, thistles, and poison hemlock. And much more, as outlined below.
The content here is mostly quotes from a variety of documents, including government and university publications and scientific studies. Click on the brief document reference just after a quote to jump to the full document itself on the web, or click the footnote numeral to see more information about the document in references at the bottom. This outline is compiled by Ken Cheetham using leads from others and web searches. Ken's photos of some of the threatened trees are at bapd.org/treestalk.html. This document is at bapd.org/treenotes.html. Last modified 2017-07-23.
Update 2016-09-16: As part of a legal settlement with the Hills Conservation Network, and in consultation with the California Governor's Office of Emergency Services (Cal OES), FEMA has shifted its funding for UC Berkeley and the City of Oakland into the portion that was given to EBRPD, where it must be used for other fire prevention approaches such as clearing brush and grass rather than cutting trees. So the trees may have won a reprieve for the moment, but the parties are likely to seek funding elsewhere, and therefore this document will remain here.
Update 2017-06-18: The UC Regents are now suing FEMA to get the money back, so UC apparently is still intent on cutting the trees.
Background: Three governmental bodies in the East Bay region around Oakland, California have applied for and been granted several million dollars in funds from the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), where the money is to be spent mostly on destroying many thousands of tall trees in forested areas, and then repeatedly applying herbicides to stumps to prevent regrowth. The three bodies are the East Bay Regional Park District (EBRPD), the City of Oakland, and the University of California at Berkeley. The rationale is to reduce the risk from wildfires to human lives and homes, prompted by the catastrophic 1991 firestorm in Oakland. The specific targeting of blue gum eucalyptus, Monterey pine, and acacia trees in the FEMA documents is more in line with sentiments for eradicating non-native species, but the official reason must be fire mitigation in order to legally receive emergency preparedness funds from FEMA. Some parties are intent on converting the East Bay Hills entirely to grassland with scattered scrub brush, which was the state of Native American land management in this ever-changing area at the moment when Europeans came onto the scene.
The official FEMA documents are on the web at http://www.fema.gov/media-library/assets/documents/100411. Groups opposing this plan include Save the East Bay Hills, Death of a Million Trees, the Hills Conservation Network, the TreeSpirit Project, the Coalition to Defend East Bay Forests, East Bay Pesticide Alert, and CUIDO (Communities United in Defense of Olmstead). Sign petitions against the cut at MoveOn and at Care2. Contact information for local officials who are behind the plan can be found at www.saveeastbayhills.org/take-action.html.
The final release of FEMA's Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) for the East Bay Hills adopted the new term "thinning" after responses from 13,000 people to the draft release, 90% of them opposing the plan according to FEMA. They define "thinning" as cutting fewer trees in any single year, but ultimately resulting in the same total reduction over a longer period. And even this "thinning" approach applies to certain areas only, while most areas may still be cut more quickly.
"The fuels reduction methodology presented in the draft EIS was revised to more closely align implementation of the project with the purpose and need and in response to a number of public comments received on the draft EIS. ... there would be a greater emphasis on thinning rather than complete removal in order to achieve the fire risk reduction goals. This vegetation management approach will result in fewer trees removed in any single year but the same total fuels reduction would be accomplished by the conclusion of the project. The proposed herbicides, application rates, and best management practices (BMPs) are the same as previously described; although, the acreage treated in any one year may be less than previously described. All treatment would still occur over the 10-year time frame. There would be no change in the total area treated or in the location of the treatment areas." Final FEMA EIS (executive summary, section ES.7.2.1) (PDF) (2014-12-03) (1)
"Under the unified methodology, trees would be thinned and understory removed in the first entry to the stand in some locations, and in other locations larger areas of trees would be removed as previously described in the draft EIS." Final FEMA EIS (executive summary, section ES.7.2.3) (PDF) (2014-12-03) (2)
"In Claremont Canyon, UCB proposes to cut down all eucalyptus, Monterey pine, and acacia trees on approximately 43 acres of UCB property, chip the downed trees, spread the chips over a fifth of the 43 acres, and apply herbicides to the stumps twice a year to prevent resprouting. Large logs would be reused for erosion and sedimentation control. In Strawberry Canyon, UCB would conduct the same activities on approximately 56 acres of property." FEMA's FAQ on the East Bay Hills (URL is defunct) (PDF) (3)
"Approximately 12,000 eucalyptus, pine, and acacia trees would be cut down [in Strawberry Canyon]." Final FEMA EIS, Section 3.4.2.2.1 (PDF) (2014-12-03) (4)
"The [UC Berkeley] 2020 Long Range Development Plan addresses a section of the Hill Campus designated the Claremont Canyon Regional Preserve study area. ... The plan states that potential uses of this area include faculty housing and a campus retreat center. The 43-acre Claremont-PDM site is largely a eucalyptus forest. UCB proposes to remove most of the eucalyptus trees from the site. This would remove a physical barrier to development of the site ..." Final FEMA EIS, Section 4.13.3.3.7 (PDF) (2014-12-03) (5)
"EBRPD submitted an application under FEMA’s HMGP for reduction of fuel loads on 540.2 acres in 11 regional parks ... EBRPD would reduce fuel loads primarily by promoting conversion of dense scrub, eucalyptus forest, and fire-prone pine forest to grassland with islands of shrubs." Final FEMA EIS, Section 1.1.3 (PDF) (2014-12-03) (6)
""In 1991, the fire event that occurred here was one of the most expensive natural disasters in history. We don't want to see a repeat of that," said Vincent Crudele, Vegetation Management Specialist with the Oakland Fire Marshall's office and Oakland Fire Department. ... Crudele said the first three years of the plan in Oakland would result in a visible change to about 100 acres near the Caldecott Tunnel and Skyline Blvd. He told KTVU more than 90 percent of the non-native eucalyptus, Monterey pine, cypress and acacia trees there would be gone." KTVU story on the eucalyptus controversy (2015-06-02) (7)
"The Sierra Club and other environmental groups including the Claremont [Canyon] Conservancy, the Golden Gate Audubon Society, and the California Native Plant Society have all advocated for removing all of the flammable eucalyptus and pine trees over time so that less-flammable native habitat can reclaim those areas." Sierra Club Yodeler article on the Sierra Club's lawsuit (2015-06-01) (8)
Local officials have recently been mentioning only Garlon (triclopyr) for herbicide use, and only of hand-painting it onto each tree stump. But the final FEMA Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) still allows for the use of Roundup (glyphosate) and Stalker (imazapyr) as well, and for spraying away from streams.
"In Claremont Canyon, UCB proposes to cut down all eucalyptus, Monterey pine, and acacia trees ... and apply herbicides to the stumps twice a year to prevent resprouting. ... In Strawberry Canyon, UCB would conduct the same activities ..." FEMA's FAQ on the East Bay Hills (URL is defunct) (PDF) (3)
"Twice a year, herbicides (Garlon 4, Garlon 3A, Stalker, or Roundup3 [glyphosate]) would be applied to any sprouts emerging from stumps. Eucalyptus seedlings emerging from seeds would be managed to prevent recolonization of the site by this invasive species. Follow-up treatments twice a year would include a low-volume herbicide spray applied to resprouted foliage between 3 and 6 feet in height. Follow-up treatments may also include a basal bark application or cutting the sprout and treating the cut surface with herbicide. On some resprouts and seedlings, Roundup may be applied to foliage in combination with Stalker." Final FEMA EIS, Section 3.4.2.2.1 (PDF) (2014-12-03) (4)
"UCB provided herbicide-use records for the past 10 years (Klatt 2011b). ... The herbicide records documented applications in fuel reduction areas in the near vicinity of the proposed and connected project areas, with some possible overlap into the Frowning Ridge area. The herbicides used included glyphosate applied as a cut stump spray, imazapyr applied as a basal bark spray, triclopyr applied using foliar low pressure, and clopyralid applied using foliar high pressure. Clopyralid has not been used since 2006." Final FEMA EIS, Section 4.5.2.2.2 (PDF) (2014-12-03) (9)
"The 2008 Pesticide Use Report for EBRPD (EBRPD 2009a) includes pest management needs and practices within the properties owned and managed by EBRPD. EBRPD’s 2008 Annual Analysis of Pesticide Use (EBRPD 2009a) states that EBRPD’s approved list of herbicides included: Roundup (glyphosate), Surflan (oryzalin), Banvel (dicamba), Garlon (triclopyr), and Casoron (dichlobenil)." Final FEMA EIS, Section 4.5.2.2.2 (PDF) (2014-12-03) (9)
"Risk Factors: Extreme fire risk created by five year drought, low humidity, and Diablo winds; highly combustible natural fuels, inadequate separation between natural fuels and structures; unregulated use of wood shingles as roof and siding material; steep terrain, homes overhanging hillsides, narrow roads, limited access, limited water supply. ... Cause: Strong winds caused rekindle of grass fire from previous day, accelerated by wind. Crews were on scene overhauling when fire erupted. Cause of original fire was undetermined." FEMA's 1991 report on the Oakland firestorm (PDF) (1991-10-30) (10)
"At 1040 hours, Oakland Fire Communications transmitted a first alarm for a reported grass fire on Campus Drive, in the hills approximately five miles south of Temescal Canyon. ... Very suddenly, the fire flared up in an unburned area on the lower east flank of the burn area. Burning embers had been carried from one of the hot spots into a patch of timber dry brush. ... The sudden eruption occurred when a firefighter was digging out a hotspot, near the perimeter, and sparks were carried into an area of dry brush, which virtually exploded into flames. ... The ignitable fuels included trees, brush, grass, and other natural fuels, as well as wood roofs, debris in rain gutters, and other combustibles around structures." FEMA's 1991 report on the Oakland firestorm (PDF) (1991-10-30) (11)
"Entry of fire into the structures through the fire area was closely associated with the adjacent wildland or ornamental plant species. Many of the homes in the steeper slope areas had overhanging decks with fuel accumulations underneath, allowing fire to spread to the decks and into the structures from below. It appeared from the location of trees around the homes that fuel accumulations on the roofs probably added to the spread of fire to the roof coverings and under the eaves. Additionally, fuels in close proximity to the structures proved to be significant, exposing the exteriors to extreme radiant heat loads. In many cases, the radiant heat caused interior contents inside windows to ignite." FEMA's 1991 report on the Oakland firestorm (PDF) (1991-10-30) (12)
"The Task Force Report concluded that the spread of the fire was mostly due to the radiant heat generated by burning houses. A burning house has a sustained radiant heat transmission of 2,500-3,000 degrees. The spread of the fire was not due primarily to burning trees -- eucalyptus or any other species." [Oakland] Task Force on Emergency Preparedness member David Maloney (2009-07-30) (13)
The City of Oakland formed a task force after the 1991 firestorm to analyze the causes of the fire and to recommend ways to avoid similar tragedies in the future. The task force's final report explicitly states that targeting particular species of non-native trees is not an effective strategy.
"The current emphasis on Blue gum...and Monterey pine...as primary culprits in the recent fire, and calls for quick removal of them are an oversimplification that can lead to negative environmental consequences." [Oakland] Task Force on Emergency Preparation (PDF) (1992-02-03) (14)
"Do not target specific species, such as Blue Gum Eucalyptus, or Monterey Pine, for eradication or exemption from tree regulation policies. Existing stands of pine and eucalyptus must be regularly maintained, and debris processed to substantially reduce susceptibility to fire. Rapid conversion of these stands could cause negative ecological impacts, such as significant soil erosion and possible landslides, and be very costly." [Oakland] Task Force on Emergency Preparation (PDF) (1992-02-03) (15)
A modest buffer between forests and neighborhoods can protect homes from the flames and radiant heat of an intense crown fire in the forest. Then fire-resistant roofing and decks can protect against ignition from embers that are blown ahead of ANY sizable fire, including ones that are fueled by the houses themselves in a neighborhood.
"Computational modeling and laboratory and field experiments that describe the heat transfer required for ignition have shown that the large flames of burning shrubs and tree canopies (crown fires) must be within one hundred feet to ignite a home’s wood exterior. ... This [photo] is a typical WUI [Wildland-Urban Interface] fire disaster scene with unconsumed and green vegetation surrounding burned structures (Grass Valley Fire). The homes ignited from low-intensity surface fires and firebrands (lofted burning embers). The trees then caught fire from the burning homes. The totality of destruction is due to the lack of fire suppression rather than the intensity of the initial ignition sources. ... Thus, given ignition-resistant homes, extreme wildfires can spread to residential areas without incurring WUI fire disasters. ... Preventing wildfire disasters thus means fire agencies helping property owners mitigate the vulnerability of their structures." USDA Forest Service scientist Jack Cohen in Forest History Today (PDF) (2008-10-01) (16)
"Detailed study of the destruction from the Grass Valley Fire showed that high intensity forest fire was not a direct factor in igniting the vast majority of homes. Many private properties had not been adequately treated for fuels, and a high number of homes in the area were constructed from highly flammable materials, including wooden decks and shake roofs. Rogers et al. (2008) concluded that "homes, not the vegetation, were the primary fuel by which the fire spread."" USGS and USFS on the 2007 California Wildfires (PDF) (2009-09-01) (17)
"Trees often get a bad rap because of the potential to spread fire in the crown, but that is seldom a hazard to structures." University of California Homeowner's Wildfire Mitigation Guide (18)
"The thin bark of this tree [California bay laurel / Umbellularia californica] provides little protection against fire. ... California bay increases fuel loading by the continual shedding of its bark." USDA Forest Service profile of California bay laurel (19)
"The Chaparral is a biome characterized by extended hot, dry periods in the summer and mild, wet winters. In order to withstand the harsh, dry summer conditions, many plant species in the Chaparral have adapted drought-tolerant qualities. Small, waxy, and often oily leaves help these plants conserve water. Consequently, the oil in the leaves that help these plants survive drought also contributes to their flammability. ... many have built large homes and estates in the midst of the Chaparral. The alluring qualities of the Chaparral ecoregion have in fact resulted in more and more people putting themselves and their properties in direct fire threat." Understanding Wildfire in the Chaparral of Southern California (book) (2012-10-25) (20)
"The numerous brush seedlings after fire in California chaparral stands as well as the vigorous sprouting ability of many species are unmistakable signs of their adaptability to fire. Axelrod (1958) states that these communities burn readily and have done so for over 2,000,000 years. Their relatively large amount of loosely arranged small material - much of it becoming dead as the plant matures - and high volatile oil content make them very flammable." Wright & Bailey's book Fire Ecology (1982-01-01) (21)
"These evergreen leaves tend to crown the upper branches of Coyote brush. The leaves become fragrant and sticky with resinous oils on hot summer days. These oils are unappetizing and may protect the plant from being eaten." Blue Planet Biomes profile (22)
"The leaves [of California sagebrush] are also aromatic and full of volatile oils. On hot days the fragrant oils evaporate to both cool the leaves and inhibit the growth of competing plants." Santa Barbara City College document on coastal sage scrub (2010-01-01) (23)
"Native understory plants can add accent to the landscape setting but can also act as ladder fuels to the woody overstory vegetation. Highly flammable plants such as sages (white, black, purple), buckwheat, California sagebrush, and deerweed should therefore be eradicated wherever permanent slope stability permits." USDA Forest Service on the chaparral-urban interface (PDF) (24)
"Hazard Trees: Though not necessarily posing a significant fuels management problem, eucalyptus or other trees that may be a hazard or future hazard along trails, near homes, or overhanging developed areas should be assessed by park staff and treated appropriately through the District's hazardous tree program." EBRPD Fuels Management Prescription (PDF) (2012-08-23) (25)
"In the 1980s, California State Parks undertook environmental studies to remove most of the Eucalyptus from [Angel Island] ... Eucalyptus were removed from 80 acres between 1990 and 1997, and nursery-grown native plants were planted in the cleared areas. Six acres of historically significant eucalyptus trees were retained. ... On October 12, 2008 ... a fire visible from all around the San Francisco Bay broke out on the island ... 380 of the island's 740 acres (300 ha) were burned in the fire. ... In portions of the evergreen woodlands, the fire burned through quickly, consuming the understory, but leaving the trees mostly undamaged. ... Prior fires include one in 2005 that burned 25 acres (10 ha), and a smaller 2-3-acre blaze in 2004." Angel Island (California) in Wikipedia (26)
"Coast live oak, bay laurel, madrone, chaparral and toyon snapped and crackled as the flames rushed through the island ..." Marin Independent Journal article (2008-10-13) (27)
"The flames are being fed by tall grass and overgrown shrubs that sprouted along the central Sierra Nevada foothills during the winter rains, said Jordan Motta, a fire captain and Cal Fire spokesman." Los Angeles Times article on the July, 2017 Detwiler Fire near Yosemite (2017-07-23) (28)
"The California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection confirmed one fatality in the wildfire north of San Francisco that raced through dry brush and exploded in size within hours. ... Wind gusts that reached up to 30 miles per hour sent embers raining down on homes ..." Associated Press article on the 2015 Valley Fire at Middletown CA (2015-09-13) (29)
"... a spark from a poorly insulated copper wire ended up igniting dry grass and leaves, setting the 76,067-acre Valley Fire in motion. ... when the blaze started no one was at the property on High Valley Road, a rural area marked by grassy hills and oak forest." San Francisco Chronicle article on the 2015 Valley Fire (2016-08-11) (30)
"At least 650 residents have been evacuated from their homes as the blaze raged in hills covered in dense brush and oak trees and dotted with ranch homes." Associated Press article on the 2015 Rocky Fire near Clear Lake CA (2015-08-01) (31)
"An explosive brush fire that ripped through hills, canyons and flatlands in the Cajon Pass in less than a day continued to ravage hillsides, leaving veteran firefighters bewildered. “It hit hard, it hit fast — it hit with an intensity that we haven’t seen before,” San Bernardino County Fire Chief Mark Hartwig said." Los Angeles Times article on the 2016 Blue Cut brush fire in San Bernardino County (2016-08-17) (32)
"On page 13-64, Vol. II, of the Fire Protection Handbook is a section dealing with the characteristics of crown fires. None of the various species of Ecualyptus tree is mentioned in this section. Why not? Because any species of living tree that has had the moisture dried out of it by a fire, and then catches fire, can "throw burning embers far out ahead of the main fire."" letter from fire safety professional David Maloney to EBRPD (PDF) (2009-10-29) (33)
"All species [of trees in this experiment in Ethiopia] had comparable biomass production under sufficient water or mild water deficit. However, the eucalypts produced more biomass than the deciduous species under severe water deficit. ... Water losses from [indigenous] C. macrostachyus and C. africana leaves were about 2–3 times those of E. camaldulensis and E. [Eucalyptus] globulus across all the treatments." Jiregna Gindaba and Andrey Rozanov of Stellenbosch University, South Africa (2004-12-09) (34)
"Most people think that eucalyptus consumes a lot of water more than any other tree species and agricultural crop. This misconception is untrue. There are quite a number of research results which revealed that eucalyptus is efficient water user. For instance, Davidson (1989) reported that on a “leakproof hectare” at Nekemet (with annual rainfall of 2158mm), E. saligna and E. grandis could produce 46.6 m3/ha/yr without drawing on water reserves (rainfall only) compared to 16.4, 16, 12.4 m3/ha/yr biomass production for the coniferous, acacia and broadleaf species, respectively." Tesfaye Teshome PhD of Debub University in Ethiopia (2009-12-01) (35)
"Results of a project designed to collect and compare data on water balances from Eucalyptus and cork oak (Quercus suber) stands [in Portugal] ... Canopy interception by the mature Eucalyptus [globulus] stand was 16.8%, and stemflow [the flow of intercepted water down the trunk to the soil] was 2.7% of annual rainfall. Stemflow from the scattered oak trees was 1.3% of annual rainfall, but canopy interception could not be evaluated and was estimated at 4.2%. ... Analyses of water balances including periodic soil moisture measurements showed no difference in monthly evapotranspiration between the two vegetation types during the pretreatment period [meaning before the trees were cut]." de Almeida and Riekerk in Forest Ecology and Management (1990-01-01) (36)
"Within forest types examined [in San Francisco urban forests], eucalyptus forests contained significantly more soil moisture than other forest types ... The increased moisture in eucalyptus is due to the fact that summer fog tends to condense on eucalyptus leaves and branches and drip down to the soil below. Such fog drip can add as much as 42 cm of water to eucalyptus forest soil during a single summer (Azevedo and Morgan 1974)." Clarke, Fisher, and LeBuhn in Urban Ecosystems (2008-07-29) (37)
"... the species richness, diversity and composition of native woodlands (of oak and bay trees) and exotic woodlands (of eucalypt trees) were compared in California. Species richness was nearly identical for understorey plants, leaf-litter invertebrates, amphibians and birds; only rodents had significantly fewer species in eucalypt sites." former UC Berkeley biology professor Dov F. Sax in Global Ecology and Biogeography (PDF) (2002-02-20) (38)
"Eucalyptus and related Myrtaceae plants are known for being able to recover from high intensity fires much better than other plants. ... As the Earth warms and more areas begin to resemble Australia's fire-dependent landscapes, the Australian researchers suggest that eucalyptus trees and related plants could form forests and woodlands that might create "an excellent long-term carbon bank for reducing atmospheric CO2" ... By resprouting from the trunk and branches, eucalypts preserve most of their aboveground woody biomass after wildfires ... In contrast, other trees that do not resprout epicormically lose their aerial wood after high-intensity fire ... Consequently, in non-epicormic resprouters, the woody biomass decays and the stored carbon is released after the fire." Elizabeth Weise in USA Today (2011-02-15) (39)
""Many plants and trees in our area may be infected by the disease, but most don’t die from it," Valachovic said. "On the leaves of two particular trees, tanoak and bay laurel, the pathogen readily produces spores, which help spread the disease. Our experimental treatment efforts are focusing on these two trees to slow reproduction of the pathogen."" University of California news article (2006-05-03) (40)
"Scientists have discovered that California bay laurels are the prime harborers of the microscopic spores, which are dispersed in the wind and rain. Arborists and ecologists are afraid that if the tiny marauders aren't stopped, California's golden hills could be denuded of its signature live oak trees. As it is, experts predict that as many as 90 percent of California's live oaks and black oaks could die within 25 years." San Francisco Chronicle article (2011-07-14) (41)
"Low thinning will be more effective than crown or selection thinning, and management of surface fuels will increase the likelihood that the stand will survive a wildfire. ... Selective removal of large, fire-resistant trees added to the problem, so that by the late 20th century, we had widespread continuous forests with, on average, smaller trees and much greater fuel loads. ... The fourth principle in a fire resilient forest strategy for the short-term is to keep the large trees in the stand if they are present. These are the most fire-resistant trees in the stand, as they have the tallest crowns and thickest bark (Peterson and Ryan, 1986). ... A textbook low thinning will simultaneously increase canopy base height, while crown and selection thinning will not. The latter two methods will generate more income, because they focus on larger trees (Hartsough, 2003), but large trees are also the most fire-resistant ones." Agee and Skinner on forest fuel reduction (PDF) (2005-01-01) (42)
"The second element needed for spot fires to occur is sufficient convective energy to carry the firebrands aloft. Typically the higher the embers are carried, the farther away from the fire front they will end up. Strong horizontal winds are capable of starting spot fires but these tend to be fairly close to the fire front, since the burning embers hit the ground pretty quickly in even the strongest winds. Convection columns, however, because they can lift burning fragments high into the atmosphere, can result in spot fires a considerable distance away." Thomas and McAlpine's book Fire in the Forest (2010-01-01) (43)
"There is a fourth method by which fire spreads that is of great concern to firefighters. This is the mass transport of firebrands which can occur as a result of convection, wind, or gravity. We call this spotting. Small embers of burning material can be lifted in a convection column and be carried some distance ahead of a fire. Wind, in addition to strong convective currents, can carry embers or firebrands considerable distances downwind from the fire. Wind without convective lifting will result in shorter range spotting of firebrands." Utah State University's "The Changing Fire Environment" (2008-01-01) (44)
"In Vesta [a research project on the behaviour of wildfires in dry eucalyptus forests in Australia], the firebrand is generated mostly from surface and near-surface bark fuels, and to a lesser extent by near-surface and elevated fuels. Spotting is strongly tied to a factoring of surface fire spread rate and wind, which generates the surface fire intensity necessary for vertical rise. However, unlike the U.S. model, the tree canopy does not significantly contribute to firebrand production. ... The Vesta model is considered state-of-the-art science in eucalyptus fuel types ..." fire behavior analyst Kelly Close on the FEMA plan (PDF) (2013-06-17) (45)
"Being dense, impenetrable, and prone to infrequent, huge wildfires is the natural condition of chaparral (it's not the fault of past fire suppression, "unnatural" amounts of vegetation, or environmental laws). ... Chaparral has a high-severity, crown fire regime, meaning when a fire burns it burns everything, frequently leaving behind an ashen moonscape. This is in contrast to a "surface fire regime" found in dry Ponderosa pine forests in the southwest where fires typically burn at mixed-severity, frequently leaving patches of trees with only surface fire scars. ... If all these fires that occur in California on a regular basis aren't forest fires, what are they? California wildfires are typically shrubland fires and have nothing to with trees. Surprising to many is the fact that forests only comprised about 5 percent of the total acreage burned during the 2003 firestorm in Southern California." California Chaparral Institute (46)
"... fire suppression has had no demonstrable effect on fuels, fire size, or fire severity in the extensive chaparral systems of the southern California foothills, where most of the damaging wildfires occur. ... The largest of these fires and most losses were in the chaparral dominated foothills, but some smaller fires in the montane coniferous forests did considerable damage to local communities as well. ... The largest of these fires burn through chaparral fuels under conditions that defy efforts at control. Increasing housing density in the southern California foothills is escalating the complexity and danger of fire control efforts under these challenging conditions." USGS and USFS on 2007 California Wildfires (PDF) (2009-09-01) (17)
""They’ve got chaparral that is over 6 feet tall," [Brad Alexander, chief spokesman for the governor’s emergency services office] said. "When you have vegetation that big and dense in an area like that it is going to cause flames to race up and down canyon walls and hillsides."" Los Angeles Times article on the 2015 Rocky Fire in Northern California (2015-08-02) (47)
"Results from the FARSITE simulations indicate the greatest average flame length and fire-line intensity for the shrub-dominated sites and the lowest for the oak woodlands. The highest rate of spread was found for the grass-dominated landscapes and the lowest for the forested landscapes [in the San Francisco Bay Area]." William H. Russell (USGS) and Joe R. McBride (UC Berkeley) (2003-01-07) (48)
"... grasslands fuels burn cooler and faster than eucalyptus material, yet they are easier to ignite and carry fire quickly across a landscape. Chaparral is one of the most hazardous wildland fuel types in California due to the woody, persistent nature of the plants ... [and] flame lengths that far exceed those of the other possible vegetation types (Carle 2008)." FEMA consultant URS Corporation (PDF) (2009-05-27) (49)
"In the case of the Rim Fire, our research found that protected forest areas with no history of logging burned least intensely. There was a similar pattern in other large fires in recent years. Logging removes the mature, thick-barked, fire-resistant trees. The small trees planted in their place and the debris left behind by loggers act as kindling; in effect, the logged areas become combustible tree plantations that are poor wildlife habitat." More Logging Won’t Stop Wildfires, New York Times (2015-07-23) (50)
"However, if light increases due to shade producing trees dying or being removed, broom will quickly revitalize, and may appear in new places, if broom had been there in the past." Wildlands Restoration Team on controlling French broom (PDF) (51)
"Clearing trees creates sunnier spaces with more dried-out land, ideal for broom to quickly take over." Encyclopedia of Invasive Species (52)
"In my opinion, that without further long-term maintenance that includes extensive planting of other species, the proposed actions will not differentially favor native species, but will simply favor invasive, highly flammable brush species, both native and non-native, leading to dangerous, intense, and destructive wildfires. ... Removing all eucalyptus, Monterey pine, and acacia trees will be a severe site disturbance. Such catastrophic site disturbances do not differentially favor less invasive native species, but rather favor more invasive species (Kerns, 2005; Owen, 2010)." fire behavior analyst Kelly Close on the FEMA plan (PDF) (2013-06-17) (45)
"... we question the assumption that the types of vegetation recolonizing the area would be native. Based on conditions observed during site visits in April 2009, current understory species such as English ivy, acacia, vinca sp., French broom, and Himalayan blackberry would likely be the first to recover and recolonize newly disturbed areas once the eucalyptus removal is complete. ... As written, the current plan assumes native vegetation will reclaim the treatment areas but does not include any plans for native revegetation. Instead, in order to "reduce undesirable weed invasions" and thus encourage the development of native grasslands, chaparral, and bay/redwood communities, UC plans to apply chip mulch to the ground. This mulch would be derived from the cut, non-native eucalyptus trees. ... Despite thorough research, we were unable to find documentation of the ability of exotic chip mulch to suppress undesirable species while encouraging favorable species. ... . In the absence of native plantings/seeding, it is likely that as the chips decompose ... dormant seeds in the seed bed from the exotics that dominated the site pre-treatment will germinate and regain dominance." FEMA consultant URS Corporation (PDF) (2009-05-27) (49)
"Eucalyptus and pine groves planted there [in the Berkeley hills] long ago intercept large amounts of fog and cause a rainlike deposit of moisture. The fog drip during the summer months has been measured at a surprising 10 inches, an amount nearly half as great as the total rainfall ..." environmental writer Harold Gilliam (PDF) (2002-01-01) (53)
"The amount of fog drip was indirectly measured by Means (1927), who determined the percentage of moisture content beneath trees and in the open on the hills behind Berkeley, California. Soil moisture percentage under a 25-yr-old Monterey pine (Pinus radiata) that was 15 feet high was 24.4% compared to 7.8% soil moisture 10 feet from the tree. For a eucalyptus tree the soil moisture values were 22.9% under the tree and 9.4% 10 feet from it." Water Deficits and Plant Growth (book) (1981-01-01) (54)
"Fog is not just a vital element for the redwoods -- it's also crucial to the entire redwood forest ecosystem. Some of the moisture drips off the redwood leaves, landing on the forest floor to water the trees and young saplings. "It's not just a drip, drip, drip," says ecologist Holly Ewing of Bates College in Lewiston, Maine ... "The moisture can descend into the ground up to 35 centimeters deep, and that's a lot of water." ... Fog rolls in not only bearing moisture but also nitrogen, phosphorus and some minerals." Michael Tennesen in Scientific American (2010-12-09) (55)
"Narrow, cylindrical coniferous needles have been shown to be the most effective 'collectors' of airborne fog particles and, perhaps, water vapor as well (Ettenheim 1962). This needle form is typical of the coast redwoods, which survive in an area of only about 35 in. of annual precipitation, a surprisingly low figure considering the apparent water demands of these giant trees. Eucalyptus, cedars, and other conifers also have a leaf shape that is effective in collecting water from the air (Oberlander 1956), and they thrive in the same type of climate. Other types of vegetation are generally less effective in collecting droplets or vapor." Watershed Hydrology (book) (1996-05-01) (56)
"The shade and protection afforded by timber stands influence fuel type ratings due to favorable fuel moisture conditions that are created. In a dense forest, ground fuels are protected from the sun and wind. Temperatures and wind velocities are lower so that moisture does not evaporate as readily from the dead fuels situated beneath dense timber canopies." NFPA Fire Protection Handbook citation by David Maloney (PDF) (2008-01-01) (57)
"Dense stands (canopy cover) tend to provide more shading of fuels, keeping relative humidity higher and air and fuel temperature lower than in more open stands. Thus, dense stands tend to maintain higher surface fuel moisture contents compared to more open stands (Andrews 1986)." USDA Forest Service technical report (PDF) (2004-04-01) (58)
"In San Francisco, shade from the tree canopy compounded by coastal fog during the summer can reduce forest temperatures by as much as 15°(F) in some areas of the city during the day (Gilliam 1962)." Clarke, Fisher, and LeBuhn in Urban Ecosystems (2008-07-29) (37)
"Removal of the eucalyptus overstory would reduce the amount of shading on surface fuels, increase the wind speeds to the forest floor, reduce the relative humidity at the forest floor, increase the fuel temperature, and reduce fuel moisture. These factors may increase the probability of ignition over current conditions." AMSET (USDA Forest Service) on the East Bay Hills Fire Risk Reduction EIS (PDF) (59)
Higher winds both (1) dry out vegetation faster, and (2) spread fire faster.
"More open stands also tend to allow higher wind speeds that tend to dry fuels compared to dense stands (Weatherspoon 1996). These factors may increase probability of ignition in some open canopy stands compared to dense canopy stands." USDA Forest Service technical report (PDF) (2004-04-01) (58)
"While plants close to a building can be a major fire hazard, those farther away can also serve as buffers against radiation and convective heat, and fire brands. Trees, in particular, can block many of these hazards by diverting wind flow away from the house. These townhouses [shown in a photo] in a rim location were protected by the trees at the rim edge." University of California Homeowner's Wildfire Mitigation Guide (60)
Bark insulates trees against fire, and trees hold more moisture than most other plants.
"We investigated the fire resistance conferred by bark of seven common tree species in north Australian tropical savannas. ... Although species did not differ significantly in their bark thermal conductance (k), the thinner barked eucalypts nevertheless achieved similar or only slightly lower levels of fire resistance than much thicker barked non-eucalypts." Lawe and Richards in Plant Ecology (2011-01-01) (61)
"Because climate change has also been projected to influence where the fog forms, Goldsmith and his colleagues hunted for clues to how the dry season fog influenced the trees by looking for a rarely studied talent among plants called foliar uptake -- the ability to absorb water through leaves in addition to the roots. Since 1950, scientists have discovered 40 species that absorb water through their leaves. 'I think what we're going to see,' Goldsmith says, 'is the more we look for it the more we'll find it.'" Sean Treacy in Science Magazine (2012-12-17) (62)
"Many downed trees would be chipped, and the wood chips would be spread over approximately 20% of each proposed and connected project area to a maximum depth of 2 feet. ... Few research results are available on the rate at which chipped or shredded wood decomposes. ... The rates of decomposition observed in several 1- and 2-year studies suggest that substantially complete decomposition would take 5 to 10 years. ... Based on the results of [the Gainseville] study, it appears likely that the decomposition rate in the East Bay Hills would be closer to 10% per year than to 21%, and substantially complete decomposition could take 10 years." Final FEMA EIS, Section 5.3.2.2.2 (PDF) (2014-12-03) (63)
"Further, the proposed treatments would convert non-fuels (standing trees) into available surface and ground fuels ... and creates a new fire hazard posed by the heavy accumulation of wood chips and other woody debris that was not present previously." fire behavior analyst Kelly Close on the FEMA plan (PDF) (2013-06-17) (45)
"The recommended depth for landscape mulch is less than 4 inches (Appleton and French 1995) to avoid stifling growth of remaining trees and to avoid spontaneous combustion that can occur when decomposition of organic materials creates enough energy in a pile to ignite a fire. ... A thorough literature search did not identify any studies documenting decomposition rates in eucalyptus mulch deeper than 4 inches ..." FEMA consultant URS Corporation (PDF) (2009-05-27) (49)
Analysis: Synthesizing information from the quoted documents above and others, it appears that even thinning tall trees in a dense forest is counterproductive for residential fire safety, as long as a modest buffer of at least 100 feet is maintained between forests and residences. The argument for thinning is that it reduces the total fuel load, and therefore reduces the intensity of the worst possible fire spreading through the crowns of trees. That is true within the forest itself, but a buffer between the forest and residences prevents an intense forest fire from entering the residential area itself, or directly igniting structures with its flames or higher radiant heat. The remaining problem is the usual one of embers that are blown ahead of the fire. But embers are blown ahead of any significant fire, and embers can be blown a long distance from any burning source (not just from the tops of tall trees) by first being lifted in a convection column above the fire. More embers will be blown from a more intense fire, but it takes only a single ember landing on an untreated wood roof shingle to ignite a house. So thinning tall trees in a forest does not solve the problem of spot fires that are started by flying embers.
But thinning tall trees in forests does increase the likelihood (and therefore the frequency) of forest fires. It decreases fog drip and shade cover and increases wind speed through the remaining trees, which reduces moisture in surface fuels. And it leaves more room for the growth of more flammable brush near the ground where fire usually spreads. All of this increases the likelihood of a forest fire igniting in the first place, and the increased wind speed also makes a fire spread faster. This meshes with simple common sense, where it's obviously cooler and less dried out inside a dense forest than in grasses and scrub brush.
A more effective approach to residential fire safety is to (1) maintain a buffer between forests and residential areas, and (2) to reduce the susceptibility of homes to flying embers igniting new spot fires on or near homes. Ember safety can be maintained using fire-resistant roof shingles and wood decks, and by reducing dry and dead vegetation very near homes (especially weeds underneath wood decks, for example). It is up to homeowners in high fire risk areas, such as near windy ridges, to assume the primary responsible for this. There is no need to destroy the wondrous tall trees in forests, which among many other benefits help to maintain human sanity by providing a comforting natural environment, especially in urban areas that are now packed with more novel surroundings like buildings, pavement, and cars.
"Urban trees provide direct air quality benefits by: absorbing gaseous pollutants (ozone, nitrogen oxides) through leaf surfaces, intercepting particulate matter (e.g., dust, ash, pollen, smoke), releasing oxygen through photosynthesis, and transpiring water and shading surfaces, which lowers local air temperatures, thereby reducing ozone levels." Tree Guidelines from USDA Forest Service (PDF) (1999-03-01) (64)
"A large front yard tree can provide the following benefits each year: ... Absorbs 10 lbs. of air pollutants, including 4 lbs. of ozone and 3 lbs. of particulates." USDA Forest Service's Urban Forest Research (PDF) (2001-03-01) (65)
"Pollution removal by trees and shrubs in New York City was estimated using the UFORE model in conjunction with field data and hourly pollution and weather data for the year 2000. ... It is estimated that trees and shrubs remove 2,202 tons of air pollution (CO, NO2, O3, PM10, SO2) per year ... Trees remove about three times more air pollution than shrubs in New York City." Assessing Urban Forest Effects and Values (USDA Forest Service) (PDF) (2007-02-01) (66)
"A paper published this month in the journal ‘Landscape and Urban Planning’ indicates that the urban trees of the Greater London Authority (GLA) area remove somewhere between 850 and 2000 tonnes of particulate pollution (PM10) from the air every year. ... One of the paper’s authors Professor Gail Taylor explains: "Trees have evolved to remove CO2 from the atmosphere, so it’s not surprising that they are also good at removing pollutants. Trees which have leaves the whole year are exposed to more pollution and so they take up more."" professors Matthew Tallis and Gail Taylor of Southampton University (2011-10-05) (67)
"Here, we ... measure changes in PM10 concentrations inside a row of roadside houses, after temporarily installing a curbside line of young birch trees. Independently, the two approaches identify >50% reductions in measured PM levels inside those houses screened by the temporary tree line." Barbara A. Maher and Imad A. M. Ahmed of Lancaster University (2013-11-11) (68)
"Trees can capture significant quantities of health-damaging particles from the atmosphere with the potential to improve local air quality. There are marked species differences in the ability of trees to capture pollutant particles, such that conifers may be the best choice for pollution-control plantings." Effective Tree Species for Local Air Quality Management (Journal of Arboriculture) (2000-01-01) (69)
Statements by a local official that urban deforestation is insignificant for global warming compared to the Amazon are unfounded.
"Based on field data from 10 USA cities and national urban tree cover data, it is estimated that urban trees in the coterminous USA currently store 700 million tonnes of carbon ... with a gross carbon sequestration rate of 22.8 million tC/yr ... Urban forests can play a significant role in helping to reduce atmospheric carbon dioxide levels. Urban forests likely will have a greater impact per area of tree canopy cover than non-urban forests due to faster growth rates, increased proportions of large trees, and possible secondary effects of reduced building energy use and consequent carbon emissions from power plants." Nowak and Crane, USDA Forest Service (PDF) (2001-07-24) (70)
"Climate change is an issue of global concern. Urban trees can help mitigate climate change by sequestering atmospheric carbon (from carbon dioxide) in tissue and by reducing energy use in buildings, and consequently reducing carbon dioxide emissions from fossil-fuel based power plants." Assessing Urban Forest Effects and Values (USDA Forest Service) (PDF) (2007-02-01) (66)
"Significant land disturbance is a major source of CO2 emissions. Human disturbance has much more impact on forests than natural disturbances such as fires or hurricanes. ... Some of the CO2 given off from forest disturbance comes from decay, but the biggest source is from the disturbed soil. Although they accumulate carbon much more slowly than trees, forest soils ultimately become storehouses for enormous amounts of carbon, over twice as much as is stored in the wood of the trees. ... The largest potential for adding forest cover is probably in urban areas." NY Dept of Environmental Conservation (71)
"Israel may be a desert, going six months of the year without rain, but local bee populations are thriving and honey production rising thanks to a new flowering tree brought over from Australia. ... "Mega-producing" Eucalyptus trees from Australia bloom all year round." Green Prophet article (2010-09-07) (72)
"In winter, our honeybees begin the year with a boost from blue gum eucalyptus and ceanothus which both provide pollen and nectar." The California Bee Company (73)
"Eucalyptus trees provide a source of nectar and pollen that attracts insects, which in turn serve as a prey base for birds and other animals. Hummingbirds and many migratory bird species feed extensively on the nectar." EBMUD's 2016 watershed master plan (PDF) (2016-08-01) (74)
"In certain situations eucalyptus trees provide key resources and habitat functions for birds that are not otherwise well provided for by native communities ... The loose bark of blue gum eucalyptus, and crevices and cracks in the bark provide foraging substrate and nest sites ... Several species choose eucalyptus for nesting to a greater degree than native trees in the urban and agricultural areas of the Monterey Bay region. These include Red-shouldered Hawk, Red-tailed Hawk, Great Horned Owl, Great Blue Heron, Great Egret, Doublecrested Cormorant. It is possible that some of these species would not nest in our developed areas in the absence of eucalyptus. The tall growth pattern and large limb structure are the most important features for these birds, compared to the native trees." ornithologist David L. Suddjian (PDF) (2004-04-03) (75)
"Bald eagles have roosted in eucalyptus groves in the San Pablo Reservoir watershed, and a great blue heron rookery exists in the eucalyptus trees at Watershed Headquarters in Orinda. A great blue heron and great egret rookery was active near the northern arm of Chabot Reservoir in the recent past." EBMUD's 2016 watershed master plan (PDF) (2016-08-01) (74)
"Anna’s Hummingbirds ... are notably common around eucalyptus trees, even though eucalyptus was only introduced to the West Coast in the mid-nineteenth century." The Cornell Lab of Ornithology (76)
"Trees create and hold soil, forests become “sponges” that conserve and recycle water, and trees and forests between them sustain most terrestrial life ... They also play a vital role in the management of the atmosphere, as absorbers of carbon dioxide. ... “Trees are among the most prominent and critical organisms on Earth ...” says Thomas Crowther, an ecologist at the Yale School of Forestry and Environmental Studies ... But ... the fact remains that the tree cover has fallen by 46% since the end of the last Ice Age. As human populations have grown, more and more forests have been cleared, and humans now fell or burn 15 billion trees a year." Climate News Network article (2015-09-04) (77)
"A substantial body of evidence demonstrates that glyphosate and Roundup cause teratogenic effects and other toxic effects on reproduction, as well as genotoxic effects." Antoniou and Habib's review in Environmental and Analytical Toxicology (PDF) (2012-01-01) (78)
"Our results suggest that chronic exposure to a GBH [glyphosate-based herbicide] in an established laboratory animal toxicity model system at an ultra-low, environmental dose can result in liver and kidney damage with potential significant health implications for animal and human populations." Mesnage, Arno, and the rest in Environmental Health (2015-08-25) (79)
"The Ontario Farm Family Health Study collected data by questionnaire on the identity and timing of pesticide use on the farm, lifestyle factors, and a complete reproductive history from the farm operator and eligible couples living on the farm. ... For late [spontaneous] abortions, preconception exposure to glyphosate (OR = 1.7; 95% CI, 1.0-2.9), thiocarbamates (OR = 1.8; 95% CI, 1.1-3.0), and the miscellaneous class of pesticides (OR = 1.5; 95% CI, 1.0-2.4) was associated with elevated risks." Arbuckle and Lin in Environmental Health Perspectives (2001-08-01) (80)
"This paper describes results from a systematic review and a series of meta-analyses of nearly three decades worth of epidemiologic research on the relationship between non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) and occupational exposure to agricultural pesticide active ingredients and chemical groups. ... In a handful of papers, associations between pesticides and NHL subtypes were reported; B cell lymphoma was positively associated with phenoxy herbicides and the organophosphorus herbicide glyphosate." Leah Schinasi and Maria E. Leon in Int J Environ Res Public Health (2014-04-23) (81)
"As glyphosate use has skyrocketed and eliminated milkweed from agricultural fields, monarch butterflies have declined by more than 80 percent in twenty years, according to [the Center for Biological Diversity]." Sam Levin in the East Bay Express (2015-09-05) (82)
"Pesticides are used throughout the world as mixtures called formulations. They contain adjuvants, which are often kept confidential and are called inerts by the manufacturing companies, plus a declared active principle, which is usually tested alone. ... Despite its relatively benign reputation, Roundup was among the most toxic herbicides and insecticides tested. Most importantly, 8 formulations out of 9 were up to one thousand times more toxic than their active principles. Our results challenge the relevance of the acceptable daily intake for pesticides because this norm is calculated from the toxicity of the active principle alone." Mesnage and Defarge in BioMed Research International (2014-02-26) (83)
Herbicides with relatively high mobility and a relatively longer half life are better able to travel farther from the point of application.
"Most laboratory and field studies indicate that Triclopyr is a relatively mobile herbicide under most conditions. ... In a laboratory study using sandy loam soil with a low organic matter content (0.62%), 75-80% of the applied Triclopyr leached through a 12 inch soil column between days 11 and 15." State of Massachusetts Review of Triclopyr (PDF) (2015-08-09) (84)
"The half-life [of triclopyr] in soil is from 30 to 90 days, depending on soil type and environmental conditions, with an average of about 46 days. The half-life of one of the breakdown products (trichloro-pyridinol) in 15 soils ranged from 8- 279 days with 12 of the tested soils having half-lives of less than 90 days. Longer half-lives occur in cold or arid conditions." Cornell University's profile of triclopyr (1993-09-01) (85)
"... Clinton signed Executive Order 13112, creating the National Invasive Species Council "to prevent the introduction of invasive species and provide for their control and to minimize the economic, ecological, and human health impacts that invasive species cause." Among the founding members of the council’s advisory committee was Nelroy E. Jackson, a product-development manager and weed scientist for Monsanto who had helped to develop Roundup formulations specifically for "habitat-restoration markets" -- that is, for eradicating invasives." Andrew Cockburn in Harper's (2015-08-14) (86)
"Wildland Weeds is a quarterly publication of the Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council (EPPC). Wildland Weeds is published to provide a focus for the issues and concerns regarding exotic pest plant biology, distribution and control." Spring 2000 issue, which lists charter advertisers that include DowAgrosciences, Invasive Plant Control, and American Cyanamid. (PDF) (2000-04-21) (87)
"Several of the risk factors that make an area susceptible to an interface fire can be mitigated, to reduce the level of risk: * Use of drought-tolerant and fire-resistant landscaping. * Fuel control measures including controlled burns [risky], clearing of dead wood, cutting tall grass and brush, grazing to thin vegetation in particular areas and similar measures. * Brush clearance areas around structures and fuel breaks in strategic locations. * Use of fire resistant roof and exterior wall materials. * Adequate access roadways for emergency vehicles and exit roadways for residents. * Water storage and distribution systems adequate for fire protection purposes. * Development of exposure protection systems, incorporating technologies such as class A foam." FEMA's 1991 report on the Oakland firestorm (PDF) (1991-10-30) (88)
"There were five major investigations after the fire, from which emerged dozens of recommendations. Among them were the use of compatible firefighting equipment, standardization of radio communications, better incident command structure, and emphasis on ember-resistant roofing materials and defensible space around homes." EBRPD 20-year report on the 1991 firestorm (2011-10-01) (89)
"Communities that clear brush and other fuel away from homes, require fire-resistant roofs and provide firefighters with defensible space, like Secesh Meadows in 2007 and Wilderness Ranch in 2012, can survive even fast-spreading crown fires." Idaho Statesman article on increasing wildfires in the US West (2015-09-11) (90)
"A more likely factor in the origin and maintenance of these grasslands was the frequent use of fire by the high density of Native Americans in the East Bay. There are many reasons for believing that these Native Americans managed their environment with fire in order to expand grasslands and other herbaceous associations over woody vegetation (Bean and Lawton 1973; Lewis 1973; Keeley 2002). ... The limited role of natural fires in the East Bay, coupled with the disturbance-dependent character of grasslands in the region, suggest that before human entry into the region the landscape mosaic heavily favored shrublands and woodlands with coniferous forests and smaller pockets of grasslands." Jon E. Keeley, International Journal of Wildland Fire (PDF) (2005-01-01) (91)
"There are no adequate definitions of 'native' and 'exotic', since there has been constant movement of species since the beginning of life. ... Even the wildest unfounded claims of invasion by 'exotics' pale in comparison to the land area occupied by technological man's monoculture crops. These crop-deserts and modern man's extractive land-domination economy are the threat to biodiversity, not 'escaped exotics'." early essays on nativism by David Theodoropoulos (1989-11-01) (92)
"Humans have been transporting species around the world, intentionally and unintentionally, for centuries. Many of the species we think of as a natural part of our landscape are, in fact, non-native. For example, the honeybee, which nearly a third of US states have named as their state insect, was introduced into North America from Europe in the 1600s. ... Whether we like it or not, the world's biodiversity is becoming globalised. We can call them aliens, exotics or biological pollution, but the fact is that introduced species are our new residents." biology professor Mark Davis in New Scientist (2009-09-25) (93)
"The evolutionary fallacy in equating native with best adapted may be simply stated by specifying the essence of natural selection as a causal principle. As Darwin recognized so clearly, natural selection produces adaptation to changing local environments -- and that is all. The Darwinian mechanism includes no concept of general progress or universal betterment. ... For this reason, many native plants, evolved by natural selection as adaptive to their regions, fare poorly against introduced species that never experienced the local habitat. If natural selection produced optimality, this most common situation could never arise, for native forms would be "best" and would prevail in any competition against intruders. ... An enormous literature in evolutionary biology documents the various, and often peculiar, mechanisms whereby organisms achieve fortuitous transport as species spread to regions beyond their initial point of origin. ... "Natives," in short, are the species that happened to find their way (or evolve in situ), not the best conceivable for a spot. ... "Natives" are only those organisms that first happened to gain and keep a footing." Harvard paleontologist and historian of science Stephen Jay Gould (PDF) (1997-01-01) (94)
"There’s no question that these migrations are sometimes destructive of the ecological status quo, if indeed such a thing even exists. But migrations of species by whatever means is an abiding part of natural history; in any event, they’re almost always irreversible. Turning back the ecological clock to 1492 is a fool’s errand, futile and pointless to boot. It seems to me we gardeners would do better to try to work with the mongrel ecology we’ve inherited -- to start out from here. We seem to feel these days that we need something we can call the new American garden. But if we must have a national garden style, there’s no reason it has to be xenophobic, or founded on illusions of a lost American Eden. Wouldn’t a more cosmopolitan garden, one that borrowed freely from all the world’s styles and floras, that made something of history rather than trying to escape it -- wouldn’t such a garden be more in keeping with the American experience? ... Here’s to multihorticulturalism." UC Berkeley professor Michael Pollan in New York Times Magazine (1994-05-15) (95)
"Procedures detailed in the Plan describe cutting down trees and applying herbicide to their exposed trunks and remaining root systems. ... Elders in the local Native community say that All Life is Sacred. We oppose extermination of the trees and plants that have taken root on this Sacred Burial Ground, regardless of whether they are endemic species or relative newcomers." Ohlone, Miwok, and Pomo elders on preserving the Glen Cove Sacred Site at Vallejo, California (96)
1. US Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) (2014-12-03). "East Bay Hills Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) for Hazardous Fire Risk Reduction (final version, executive summary)", section ES.7.2.1. http://www.fema.gov/media-library-data/1416861409909-0d76d1d9da1fa83521e82acf903ec866/Executive_Summary_508_508.pdf
2. US Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) (2014-12-03). "East Bay Hills Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) for Hazardous Fire Risk Reduction (final version, executive summary)", section ES.7.2.3. http://www.fema.gov/media-library-data/1416861409909-0d76d1d9da1fa83521e82acf903ec866/Executive_Summary_508_508.pdf
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8. "Sierra Club files suit to protect East Bay hills from fire risk". Sierra Club Yodeler. http://theyodeler.org/?p=10490
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